World War One in Russian Poland: Fredja JozefsonBernstein's Story

Russian World War One poster, Russia bringing peace to Europe

At the beginning of World War One, both the Russians, and the Austrian and German allies had plans for a reunited Poland under either Russian or Austrian rule. The Austrian/German alliance envisioned a new Poland uniting Austrian Galicia with Russian Poland. They planned to bring in a member of the Austrian royal family as king of Poland.   Both the Russians and the Germans looked at a new Polish nation as a possible military zone in future wars thus protecting their respective homelands. The Austrian/Germans appealed to the Poles under the Tsar's rule to fight for freedom, and independence from Russian rule. They hoped to expand Poland to the east. The Russian appeal to the Poles, issued by Grand Duke Nicholas on August 15, 1914, mentions 150 years of German rule in Poland.  He stated that Poland's soul is not dead and hoped that the German and Austrian controlled sections of Poland could be joined to Russian Poland and aligned with Russia under the rule of Tsar.

 

Europe in 1815, after the Congress of Vienna.  Much of Poland was absorbed into Russia, including the Capital, Warsaw. In 1870, Germany was created merging Prussia and smaller German speaking states (indicated in Yellow on this map.)

In August 1914, the Russians invaded Austrian Galicia and German ruled Poland.  They were successful in Galicia and controlled it for 2 years, but suffered terrible defeats by the Germans in northern Poland, losing The Battle of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes.  Their path of the invasion crossed northern Poland and affected the people of Szczuczyn, where many members of my husband’s family lived.  Although I do not have any stories from his family members, I do have the memoir of Fay Jozefson Bernstein, who like my great aunt Katherine who lived in Galicia, lived in a battle zone. Fay's memoir, written by David Bernstein, is published on the Szczuczyn site. To read Fay's memoir, click on this link: www.szczuczyn.com/jozefson.htm

Fay Jozefson Bernstein was born Frejda Jozefson in Szczuczyn in January 1905.  Her father, Schmuel Jozefson, an ordained rabbi died when she was six months old, leaving his wife, Hinda, and five daughters.   In order to support her family, Hinda opened a grocery store, which served the neighborhood as well as the Polish farmers who came to town on market days.  Fay’s mother believed in education, she was educated and she made sure that her daughters had educations.  Although she was poor, she was charitable; Fay remembers leaving packages of food on the doorsteps of poor members of the Jewish community. In Szczuczyn there was a Yeshiva, a religious school which trained rabbis. Families in town took in students for meals, and Hinda took her turn providing food for the students, often going without food herself.

Szczuczyn is located at the lower right quarter of the map.  The Russian Army is blue, the German is red.

Szczcuzyn was less than a mile from the Polish-German border, in the area of Poland ruled by Russia.  In August 1914, the Russians invaded Germany, and soldiers marched through the town.  Since the Russians lost the Battle of Tannenberg, there was fighting in the Szczuczyn area as they retreated.  Fay tells about the first incident that affected her family in Szczuczyn.   

The German and Russian armies were shelling each other, the people of the neighborhood were running, but didn’t know where to go.  The neighbors told them to leave everything behind and run.  They followed the crowd and came to a building with a basement and a metal roof.  The Jozefons hid in the basement for almost two weeks.  It was crowded with people, women, children and crying babies.  There was no water, and only bread and raw potatoes to eat.  When the shooting stopped, they left and returned to their home. Their home was full of bullet holes, and many possessions were gone. The Germans were gone, but they weren’t gone for long.

Russian Troops retreating after the Battle of Tannenberg

Several months later, in December 1914, the Germans returned.  Jews were warned to leave immediately since the Germans believed that Jews were Russian spies, and would kill them.  Fay could see people running, but she had no idea where they were going.  The husband of Fay’s mother’s friend had a horse and wagon, and she begged them to take Fay. They agreed to take her and Fay climbed in and hid under blankets with the rest of their family. She didn’t realize until later that her mother and sister were not in the wagon.  They traveled for a while and came to a house with a windmill near a forest.  The owner of the farm hid the family, as well as many other people.  He had an orchard, and provided the people with fruit to eat.  Again they were crowded together in darkness.  They could make no noise, since they could knew the soldiers outside would hear them and would shoot and kill them.

German soldiers in a captured Russian artillery station, World War 1

Three weeks later, the shooting stopped. After a few days of quiet, Fay begged the man with the wagon to take her back to Szczuczyn so she could find her mother and sister and finally he agreed.  They rode into town and Fay got out of the wagon, looked into her house and found it was riddled with bullets, the windows broken and the house empty. Her mother and sister were gone.  As she ran back to the wagon, soldiers appeared and started to shoot at them.  The man beat his horse as they galloped away, shouted at Fay, saying that he was risking his life trying to help her.  They returned to the farm and went into hiding again.

After three  more weeks, her mother and sister were found in a nearby village.  The soldiers had retreated and the Jozefson family returned to Szczuczyn.  Their house and store had been looted and was empty.  Hinda reopened the grocery store, and was hopeful that things would improve. Although the border was calm, the Jewish people of Szczuczyn were still afraid.  They kept their homes completely dark at night, and slept in their clothes, just in case.
  

Temporary shelter constructed by Polish refugees.

The Jewish High Holidays in Eastern Europe

Rosh Hashanah card from 1900. Immigrants from Russia are welcomed to the United States by former immigrants.

In this post I will concentrate on customs that were practiced in Eastern Europe, but not commonly practiced today in the United States.
The most important Jewish holidays, usually called the High Holidays are celebrated in the early fall, in the month of September.  Many customs and practices observed in the United States originated in Eastern Europe.  The holidays, begin with Rosh Hashahah and end with Simhat Torah.  The most important of the holidays is Yom Kippur, the day of atonement, and the most festive is Simchat Torah, which celebrates the the completion of the reading of the Torah scroll, and the beginning of a new cycle of Torah reading. 

New Year card, sent by  Morris and Sarah Gerstein, my husband's grandparents.

In the towns and villages in Russia, Poland and Galicia, preparations were made for the holidays during the month of Elul, the month before Rosh Hashanah, when Jews were asked to examine daily lives in preparation for Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement.  The shofar was blown every morning in anticipation of the Days of Judgement (the days between Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur).  Psalm 27 was added to morning and evening prayer services.  During the week before Rosh Hashanah,  Three Selihot services are held, for the purpose of repentence.  In eastern Europe, families would go to the cemetery before the holidays and visit the graves of their ancestors and to distribute charity.

Sounding the Shofar on Rosh Hashanah

Rosh Hashanah begins at sundown, with the sounding of the shofar, the ram's horn.  In the afternoon of the first day of Rosh Hashanah, during a break in the services, people would gather at a nearby body of water in order to symbolically cast away their sins in the moving water. This is called Tashlikh.

Tashlikh Ceremony in Poland

Tashlikh Ceremony on the Brooklyn Bridge

Special foods were served on Rosh Hashanah;  carrots, a special challah bread, often round.  Honey was an important part of the celebration.  Challah and apples were dipped in the honey before eating it, symbolizing a sweet new year.  In Poland forty blessings were said over the bread.

Round Challah and apple for dipping in honey on Rosh Hashanah

Another custom, widely practiced in Eastern Europe the evening before Yom Kippur was Kaparot.  A live white chicken was held over a person's head and swung 3 times as prayers were said.  The person's misdeeds and sins were transferred to the chicken, and it was then  slaughtered.  Either the chicken or the money it brought when sold was donated to charity.
Kreplach, dumplings stuffed with either meat of chicken and cooked in soup, were served the day before Yom Kippur.  The kreplach symbolized a persons fate which was hidden and would be decided on Yom Kippur,  the day of atonement and judgement.

An old woodcut showing Kaporot in Eastern Europe.  One chicken is swung over the man's head, while the other is slaughtered.

"Jews Praying in the Synagogue"  Painting by Maurycy Gottlieb, 1878

Yom Kippur is the holiest holiday in the Jewish calender.  Services begin at sundown and continue the next day until sundown. Many families burn Yarzheit candles at home  to remember family members who have died. It is a day of  fasting, prayer and reflection. It is believed that God writes every persons name in the Book of Life on Yom Kipppur, deciding who shall live and who shall die. A special Yarzheit, service is offered on Yom Kippur;  people recite the Kaddish and remember family members who have passed away. When services are over, the fast is broken at home and special meal is served,  usually fish and lighter foods.

A simple Sukkot hut.

Five days after Yom Kippur is the festival of Sukkot.  This is one of the most ancient Jewish holidays and it commemorates the wondering of the Jewish people for forty years after the revelation of the Ten Commandments to Moses. on Mt Sinai.  Families built temporary huts similar to what the ancient Jews built as they moved from place to place. The family would eat their meals in the hut for the duration of the holiday. The purpose of the holiday is to thank God for the completed harvest.  Four items are used at Sukkot were  date palm branches, myrtle, willow and citron. These items were hard to find  and expensive in Eastern Europe, so in many villages, only one set could be purchased and shared by all.

The holidays end with Simchat Torah, the 7th day of Sukkot and the most festive.  This holiday commemorates ending of the annual cycle of weekly Torah  readings and the beginning of a new cycle.
The celebration includes parades with the Torah Scrolls around the synagogue,  dancing, singing and again special food.  Traditionally stuffed cabbage is served on Simchat Torah.

Old woodcut of Simchat Torah

A modern illustration of Simchat Torah festivities, "Simchat Torah" by Israel Bernhaum

No Post Today--I'm doing some more research--I'll be back next Friday.

"Rise, Rise for Evanston"

Evanston Township High School today,

"Rise, Rise for Evanston Spread, abroad her fame" was the first line of the Alma Mater song of my high school, Evanston Township High School. The song was composed in the 1920's, but it still applies to the school today.
Last weekend I attended my 50th High School Class Reunion.  I graduated from Evanston Township High School in June 1964.  Our class was large, almost 800 students in the class, about 300 attended the Reunion. The class had many bright and accomplished students, many attended Ivy League and other prestigious universities.  Many went on to graduate and professional schools.  There were high hopes for our class, and for the most part, the hopes were realized.

Evanston Township High School in 1964, pictured in our yearbook, the Key

All of us came from the towns of Evanston and Skokie, Illinois.  We were fortunate to attend such a fine high school, and even more fortunate to live in these great towns.  In the 1960's Evanston was the "headquarters" city, home to many corporations.  It is also the home of Northwestern University.  It was known as a city of 'Homes, schools and churches" many of architectural significance. It was a great place to raise a family, there were plenty of things for children to do, beautiful parks, Lake Michigan beaches, and only a short train ride from Chicago.  In 1964, Our high school was considered one of the best in the nation and still is today.

Evanston was one of the high schools featured in Look Magazine in 1964.

    Graduating seniors

Commencement Program

I was on the yearbook staff in 1964

The Washington Post picked Evanston High School as one of American most challenging High schools in 2013.

Evanston Township High School was picked a one of the top high schools in 2014

What's My Name?

My surname is Noznick--or is it?
My surname has been problematic for most of my life.  It is often mispronounced unintentionally, and sometimes intentionally.  I have had some strange nicknames derived from my last name--like nozzie or just noz.  So I always assumed that when I married, I would change my name immediately.  But, I didn't.  My husband's surname, Gerstein, is fairly common, easy to spell and pronounce.  So why didn't I change?  When I got married, in 1981, many women did not change their names when they married, and I was also a bit lazy, so I just kept the status quo.
Now I will get to the interesting part.  In spite of keeping this surname, I have found out in my genealogical research, that Noznick isn't my family surname at all.  My real surname is Nyznyk. 

Many people assume that surnames were changed when people went through Ellis Island--but actually that didn't happen.  An immigrant's name was recorded on ships' manifests at the port of embarkation, and written according to the immigrant's passport.  When the person got to Ellis Island, that manifest was copied, often in longhand, and the immigrant's personal information was recorded.  From what I have seen, nothing was changed at this time.

Many immigrants changed, shortened or Americanized their names after they were in the United States.  On my side of the family, my mother's family name went from Kociuba to Koshuba.   My grandmother's surname, Rychlyj, was changed to either Rychly or Rychley.  In my husband's family, his grandmother's surname was changed from Monkovski, to Markin by some cousins. Karbovsky was changed to Krause in the 1930's. In the Gerstein family, his great Aunt's Biele Schwartz's married name was changed from Mankevetsky---to Mancoff. Her first name became Becky.

Peter Noznick in Central Park, NYC,about 1930.

So, how did Nyznyk become Noznick?  First of all, there is no evidence that the name was legally changed. My father found this out when he applied for a passport in 1965. He found no records under  Peter Paul Noznick, born August 18, 1915, in New York City.  He made a trip to New York City to locate information that would prove his identity.   He found his birth certificate,  his last name was spelled Nausneck--no first name listed.  More searching located his baptismal certificate and his parent's marriage license.  On both of these documents the name was spelled Nyznyj. His father's name was written in Latin as Ionnes Nyznyj--in English he was John Nyznyk.  My Dad still could not prove that Peter Paul Nyznyj was Peter Paul Noznick. 

1930 United States Census, listing the Noznick family.

I came across on of my Dad's report card with his name listed as Noznick. He signed his mother's name to the card as Mary Noznick.  In 1930, she was married  to Peter Zackowski and was known as Mary Zackowski.  In the 1930 census, I found the Noznick family at 624 E. Eleventh St, NYC, which was the address where my Dad told me he lived.  I believe that my Dad gave the census taker the information since both his parents worked three jobs, and were not at home.  The head of the house was listed as John Noznick, wife as Mary Noznick and son as Peter Noznick.  According to his application for US citizenship, dated 1930, my Dad's father, John Nyznyk, lived at 533 E. 6th St, his occupation was upholsterer. But In the 1960's, the 1930 Census information was not available and my father did not know that his father applied for United States citizenship.

John Nyznyk's application for US Citizenship, 1930.

How did he solve the problem of establishing his identity?   He did get the passport and made the trip abroad.  He obtained an affidavit stating that he was Peter Noznick and had been known by that name since high school. 

My Dad in the 1934 Crystal, the yearbook of Windham High School.

How did Nyznyk become Noznick? The fact that his mother was illiterate, and did not speak English very well may have contributed to the transformation of nyznyk to noznick.  Since the name sounded a bit like noznick,  he became Peter Noznick. Perhaps the teachers knew of the Noznick family, who lived in New York City, and spelled my dad's surname in a was that was familiar to them.    My Dad's father was literate, so his name was never changed, misspelled or mangled like my Dad's was.

So what about the Noznick surname? It is an uncommon name, but  as I researched my family history, I found there were several Noznick families living in New York City.  I have no idea what their ethnic background was, and I have found no family connection with any of these people.

Ternopil', Ternopol, Tarnopol.

 Old postcard view of Ternopil' Ukraine

Ternopil', a city in Western Ukraine is my subject--why did I choose this city?  First of all, although none of my ancestors lived in Ternopil', most of them came from villages near this city, as did many other Ukrainian and Jewish immigrants to the United States. Second, Ternopil's names give a hint of its history--Ternopil' is its Ukrainian name, Tarnopol is the name in Polish, in Russian it is Ternopol, in German, Tarnopol.  All these powers ruled it at one time.

                                                     

Ternopil' is located in Western Ukraine, in Galicia, (in Ukrainian, Halachyna), a very old and important part of Ukraine, about 70 miles east of Lviv. Ternopil' is one of the major cities of Ukraine today. It is located on the Syret River, a tributary of the Dniester River.  The population was 218,614 in 2010 and about 13,000 in 1900, when many of my ancestors lived in the area. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, Ternopil' today is a railroad junction and industrial city.  Its industries include light engineering, food processing and manufacturing consumer goods. As I mentioned earlier, none of my ancestors lived in this city, but my maternal grandmother's families, the Rychlyjs and the Bryniaks, lived in Bila, a village just outside the city walls of Ternopil', about a 15 minute walk to the city center.  My other ancestors, the Kocuiba (Koshuba), family lived in Ozerna, about 13 miles to the west, the Nyznyk family came from Pomorany, 30 miles west, and the Klak family lived in Zarvanytsia, about 25 miles southwest.

 Galicia played an important part in Ukrainian history.  Early Ukrainian history took place in Kiev, but as the influence of Kiev began to weaken, Galicia became more important.  The ruler of Kiev, Volodymyr the Great (980-90) is best known for bringing  Christianity to Ukraine. Volodymyr won Galicia from Poland and integrated it into his realm.
In the 13th century, Prince Danylo of Halych, a descendent of Volodymyr,  took control of Galicia.  During his rule he  initiated several important policies in Galicia.  Orest Subtely, author of  Ukraine, a History (1988),  said that Danylo sought the support of townspeople and peasants to offset the powers of the noblemen.  In order to populate his new towns, he encouraged artisans and merchants from Poland and Germany to settle them. Armenians and Jews also came to Galicia, which developed a multi-ethnic population, that continued until the 20th century. When Galicia was conquered by the Mongols in 1246,  Danylo pledged loyalty to them. This didn't stop him from establishing relations with European powers , Poland, Hungary, and Rome. Danylo died in 1264, and by working to keep the Mongol/Eastern influence out of Galicia, he turned Galicia towards Western Europe. (Subtelny pp. 61-63).

Jan Tarnowski, founder of the city of Ternopil'

Now to Ternopil'.  The city was founded in 1540 by Jan Tarnowski, a Polish nobleman. He build a walled town with a castle and a defensive moat/pond.  Galicia and the city of Ternopil' were governed by various Polish kings and nobles until 1772, when they became part of the Austrian Empire in the first partition of Poland. The people of Galicia, especially Ukrainians and Jews did well under Austrian rule, and the the city of Lviv became a center of  Yiddish culture and Ukrainian nationalism. 
In 1870, a railroad line was built that connected Ternopil' to Lviv. Ternopil' was now connected to the major cities of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire  as well as the cities of Europe. It became a railroad center and its population grew. The city of Ternopil' had a diverse population, in 1900 the city population was 28% Ukrainian, 27% Polish and 44% Jewish.

Ternopil Railroad Station

World War One was very hard on Ternopil', as Austrian, Russian, and German armies  invaded the city, its residents suffered great hardship. It wasn't far from the Russian border, and many important battles took place nearby.   My Great Aunt Kathrine Pylatuik Lymar told of her village, Bila, being shelled, killing family members, destroying homes, and of having  food, possessions and farm animals stolen by soldiers of the various armies. The city was burned by the retreating Russian Army in 1917. After the War ended in 1918, Ternopil' was part  of Ukrainian Peoples' Republic.  It was captured by Polish and Russian forces in the Polish-Soviet War.  According to the Treaty of Riga,which ended the Polish-Soviet War, Galicia and Ternopil'  became part of the Republic of Poland in 1920, and remained part of Poland until 1939.

Russian Soldiers Retreating from Ternopil', 1917

World War Two was even more destructive to Ternopil'.  As a  result of the Molotov-Von Ribbentrop Treaty, the  Soviets and the Germans divided  Poland in 1939. Western Poland came under German control and  Eastern Poland, including Galicia became part of the USSR.  

 

Planned Division of Eastern Europe, 1939 and Actual Changes 1939-1940

Many people were deported to Siberia and other eastern areas of the Soviet Union.  In 1941, the Nazi armies invaded Galicia and Ternopil', killed most of the Jewish population and sent Ukrainians to forced labor camps in Germany.  Most of Ternopil' was destroyed in 1944.  After the war, many Polish residents of eastern Galicia, including my great Uncle Andrei Klak and his family, relocated to Western Poland, near the city of Wroclaw. Wroclaw had been part of Germany, known as Breslau.  One of the results of the destruction of World War II was that very few buildings in Ternopil' survived, so the city was rebuilt. Ternopil' remained part of the Soviet Union until 1991, when  the Soviet Union dissolved and Ukraine became an independent country.

Ternopil' today. Source: The Encyclopedia of Ukraine.

Living on a battle field: Katherine’s World War I Story

Village in Galicia destroyed early in World War One.

Katherine Pylatiuk was ten years old when the Russian Army invaded her village, Bila, just outside of Ternopil, in Eastern Galicia.  She was 18 when the World War One finally ended in 1921.  When the war started in 1914, Katherine, my great aunt, lived in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, when all the associated conflicts ended in 1921, she lived in Poland.  Between 1918 and 1921, when the wars ended, her village was ruled by the Germans, then by the Ukrainians and finally, the Poles.

Katherine’s father, Sylvester Rychly had immigrated to the United States and lived in Minneapolis, Minnesota.  Her mother, Marya Bryniak Rychly and her six brothers and sisters lived in Bila.  It was difficult being a single mother, but more difficult when you are living in a battle zone.  She and her family shared their one room house with Russian soldiers for a good part of the war.  The village was often shelled by the armies, food was scarce.  The armies took whatever they wanted from the villagers, and never reimbursed them for anything.

Russian Soldiers in a  village on the outskirts of Ternopil'.

Diadko (Uncle) Panko Bryniak, Marya Rychly’s brother, was drafted into the Austrian army and left a mare and foal in Marya’s keeping.  Katherine and her cousin took the animals to a pasture to graze, thinking it was a safe place to take the horses, since horses were very valuable to the villagers. While they were there, Russian soldiers rode up, took the mare and the foal followed its mother.  The family was upset about the loss, but there was nothing they could do about it.

Russian Soldiers in Galicia

One Christmas, probably in 1914 or 1915, the family had Russian soldiers in their house and yard, chosing the location because it was close to a village well.  They brought their “magazyn” (supply wagon) and set up a kitchen in the yard.  The villagers put straw on the floor of their houses at Christmas to remind them of the stable in Bethlehem where Jesus was born.  Since the Russian soldiers slept on the floor, the straw became dirty and matted down.  Marya had asthma, and the layers of straw made her sick, confining her to bed for several weeks. 

The good thing about having the “magazyn” was that the soldiers shared their food with the family.  Food was scarce during the war, and for a short while, the family had enough to eat.

Cattle being Driven to the Russian Army in Galicia, World War One.

In 1917, when the Russian army retreated back to Russia, the soldiers ordered the villagers to bring all the cattle to a special enclosed field.  Since Marya had only one cow and six children to feed, she didn’t want to give it up.  As Marya and the other villagers herded the cattle down the street, she passed her brother’s yard, and quickly pushed the cow through the gate and hid it.  Fortunately the fence was high and the Russian soldiers didn’t see anything.  The cow was saved, and the family had food.  Since Marya was both mother and father to her family, so she did what she thought was right.  She took a great risk, because if the soldiers discovered her actions, the punishment would have been a beating or death.  The family would lose both the cow and its mother.

This bridge is not in Galicia, but it may be similar to the one built by Russian soldiers over the Syret River.

On Sundays, the village young people walked to the woods, and crossed the river Syret to get to there.  They used a rickety wooden plank bridge that was built by the Russian soldiers, The bridge was considered dangerous, but they used anyway.  One Sunday, Katherine and friends went swimming in the lake, and Russian soldiers stole their clothes.  They did return the clothing, but it was the last time she went swimming during the war.

As the war years passed, old customs changed. In early summer, before the war, the villagers went to their fields on ”Green Sunday” to bless the grain fields and to ask for a good harvest.  The young men and women carried crosses and banners, and people sang hymns.  During the war this happened only at night.  The soldiers would shoot at anything that they thought was a threat, cultural events and speaking the Ukrainian language were considered threats.  Even though the events were conducted at night, it was very dangerous.

Living on a battlefield was dangerous. A person never knew what to expect, life was always changing, and not for the better.

Source:Katerzina(Kaska), Autobiography by Katherine Pylatuik Lymar as told to her Daughter, Julie in 1988.